The last work package addresses a specific form of interethnic relations: violence. During the violent revolutionary years, all residents of Ukraine faced the challenge of survival. However, violence was not experienced equally. Non-Ukrainians were more likely to be targets of violence. We investigate when and how they were stigmatized as “others”, e. g. due to their privileged status in the imperial period, their economic wealth, or their alleged involvement in Bolshevism. We also focus on non-Ukrainians survival and self-defense strategies. Last but not least, we address sexualized violence, as it did not only make a difference whether a person was considered to be Ukrainian, Jewish, German etc., but also if they were male or female.

The key research questions of this work package are: How did non-Ukrainians experience violence and what strategies did they employ to survive? How did the conditions in which they found themselves influence their dealing with violence? How did non-Ukrainian women experience violence differently from their male co-nationals and from Ukrainian women?